Kaizen

Kaizen jika diterjemahkan secara kasar bermaksud penambahbaikan.

Kaizen jika didalam bahasa jepun dibahagikan kepada 2 bahagian iaitu "kai" yang berasal daripada perkataan "aratameru" yang bermaksud memperbaharui atau memperbaiki,dan "zen"
yang menjadi tanda pencapaian tertinggi atau kesempurnaan didalam agama buddha.
Jadi secara ringkasnya kaizen lebih bermaksud memperbaharui sesuatu (produk,perkhidmatan dll) supaya menjadi lebih sempurna (tiada cacat cela atau komplen)yang perlu dilaksanakan terus menerus tanpa ada titik penamatnya.

Tambahkan sehingga baik dengan baharukan sehingga sempurna adalah dua kaedah yang berbeza.Sebab itulah ekonomi dan produk negara Jepun,Korea dll sentiasa menjadi trend terbaru sedangkan produk kita menjuarai trend terkebelakang.Kenapa?Disebabkan kita hanya menambah baik produk kita maka kita tidak melakukannya berterusan,maka produk yang baik hari ini akan menjadi "obselete" keesokan harinya.Jika produk kita diperbaharui hari ini dan esok dan seterusnya maka kita akan menjadi peneraju trend dan bukannya pengikut trend atau paling malang ketinggalan zaman.

Oleh itu laksanakan Kaizen dengan cara yang sebenarnya dan lupakan penambahbaikan atau Improvement.Ia sebenarnya bukan kaizen yang difahami oleh negara maju.

Break down barriers between departments (optimize the efforts of team).

Break down barriers between departments (optimize the efforts of team).

Di dalam memastikan kecekapan dan keberkesanan semua pihak didalam sesebuah organisasi maka segala halangan dan rintangan antara bahagian atau jabatan perlulah dihapuskan.Sebenarnya sudah menjadi lumrah setiap bahagian berusaha bersungguh-sungguh menjayakan target atau sasaran bahagian masing-masing biarpun kesannya menyebabkan bahagian yang lain menerima kesan yang buruk.
Sebagai contohnya,bahagian purchasing yang sentiasa mencari ruang untuk mengurangkan kos tanpa memperdulikan kualiti pembekal menyebabkan bahagian pengeluaran menanggung segala akibatnya.Ketika bahagian purchasing berbangga dengan penjimatan kos, bahagian pengeluaran pula dipaksa menanggung kos berlebihan disebabkan kualiti bahan mentah telah berkurangan.
Tetapi pada akhirnya syarikat yang menanggung kerugian kerana sudah tentu penjimatan kos bahan mentah tidak dapat mengatasi kerugian yang ditanggung oleh bahagian pengeluaran disebabkan oleh peningkatan kos daripada kemerosotan kualiti.
Contoh kedua pula,dimana pihak R&D cuba memperkenalkan kaedah,model,cara pengeluaran yang baru bagi meningkatkan daya saing produk syarikat tetapi ditentang oleh bahagian QC kerana kaedah atau model tersebut banyak menghasilkan defek.Sebenarnya apa yang dikatakan oleh QC adalah benar berasaskan keadaan kualiti semasa ,tetapi bahagian QC tidak seharusnya menentang segala idea dan inovasi baru dan menekankan konsep "status quo" cuba mengekalkan keadaan sedia ada yang pada masa terdekat akan menyebabkan produk kita tidak diterima pakai oleh pengguna baru dan sedia ada yang sentiasa inginkan produk berkualiti tetapi terbaru dan dengan aplikasi yang lebih canggih.Selalunya adalah menjadi satu dasar syarikat apabila didalam proses mereka produk baru bahagian QC tidak dilibatkan sehinggalah ke peringkat pre production.Penglibatan QC pada proses pre-production adalah bagi memastikan defek dan segala kekurangan dapat diatasi dan ditambahbaikan.
Syarikat perlu memastikan setiap bahagian bekerjasama dan mempunyai satu target sahaja iaitu memastikan syarikat dan produk kita survive dan bukannya merangka target berlainan bagi setiap bahagian yang menyebabkan survival syarikat ditenggelamkan oleh kepentingan dan KPI bahagian masing-masing.Apabila satu bahagian berjaya mencapai target dan satu bahagian lagi tidak ,maka secara puratanya(pencapaian setiap bahagian di campur dan dijumlahkan semuanya) syarikat tidak kehadapan sebaliknya kekal disitu (o )atau berundur kebelakang(negatif).
Alangkah baiknya setiap kelebihan bahagian masing-masing (yang optima)digunakan bagi mencari jalan bagi mencapai kejayaan untuk syarikat.
Pengurusan yang baik tidak seharusnya menekan bahagian masing-masing bagi mencapai target tertentu sebaliknya menekankan satu target untuk dicapai oleh semua sebagai satu kumpulan.Sebenarnya bahagian yang mencapai target tidak bermaksud semuapekerjanya cekap dan bertanggungjawab tetapi mungkin melakukannya dengan cara "over do/over capacity" yang merupakan racun yang akan membunuh syarikat pada masa terdekat.Produk tidak berkualiti tidak mungkin menghasilkan produk yang diterima pelanggan pada jangka masa panjang.Keuntungan jangka pendek bukanlah kejayaan sebaliknya jalan kebinasaan pada masa hadapan.Masyarakat yang menerima produk berkualiti rendah pada masa sekarang akan menjadi pengguna yang mementingkan kualiti pada masa hadapan.

Kepentingan Memastikan Pekerja Berbangga dengan hasil kerja mereka.

Sudah menjadi kebiasaan dan lumrah (walaupun sebenarnya salah) pekerja bawahan selalu ditekan untuk mencapai target yang selalunya berkaitrapat dengan peratusan output/kuantiti (numerical target).

Ini menyebabkan elemen 4M (Man,Machine,Material,Method) digunakan melebihi kadar penggunaan biasa (standard) selalunya melebihi kapasiti (over capacity ,over use ).

4M jika digunakan pada kadar berlebihan (over use ) akan menyebabkan faktor Muri (over capacity) berlaku maka kesannya berlakulah ketidakstabilan proses Mura (fluctuation) dimana kesan akhirnya adalah kemerosotan kualiti dan pembaziran Muda (waste)

Sebagai contoh:

Situasi A
Kapasiti pengeluaran harian : 2000 buah produk
Kita memaksa operator mengeluarkan 2100 buah produk atau tambahan 100 buah produk daripada kapasiti pengeluaran asal.Oleh sebab elemen 4M dipaksa digunakan pada kadar yang melampau maka hasil produk yang berkualiti telah jatuh kepada 1900 sahaja.Berapa sebenarnya kerugian kita?
200 produk telah merosot kualitinya disebabkan oleh faktor over capacity tadi.Jadi kenapa membazir masa,tenaga,bahan mentah dan pemantauan hanya untuk menghasilkan 200 produk defek?Tidakkah kita sedar bahawa kita telah membazir dengan banyaknya hanya kerana pentingkan kuantiti.

Situasi B
Katakan pelanggan hanya mahukan 2000 produk kita hanya mampu hasilkan 1900 produk sahaja tetapi semuanya elok dan berkualiti.

Walaupun kita tidak mencapai sasaran adakah kemarahan pelanggan terhadap kita bagi kedua-dua situasi adalah sama?Bagi situasi A penghantaran (delivery) adalah mencukupi tetapi terdapat produk yang defek atau berkualiti rendah berbanding situasi B,penghantaran kurang semuanya berkualiti dan baik.

Bagi pelanggan (internal customer) di bahagian pengeluaran 100% produk yang baik dan berkualiti lebih disukai berbanding 100% penghantaran (delivery ) yang tepat.Ini kerana bahagian pengeluaran tidak perlu menghadapi masalah ”line stop” hanya kerana terjumpanya produk defek sehingga menganggu perancangan pengeluaran dan pembaziran yang lebih besar.Material yang kurang berkualiti menyebabkan kos kemerosotan kuality (Quality lost costs) meningkat tinggi.

Kaedah JIT & Kanban (bunyi kamban) atau pull system boleh digunakan bertujuan mengurangkan inventori,mengelakkan pengeluaran dalam keadaan ”over capacity” dan bagi mengurangkan kos kemerosotan kualiti dan pengurangan kos keseluruhan.

Oleh itu tingkatkan kapasiti pengeluaran 3M lain dahulu sebelum mendesak pekerja meningkatkan produktiviti.Denngan mengubah keadaan sistem (kapasiti) sahajalah produktiviti (termasuk kualiti) sebenar dapat ditingkatkan.

Nota:Segala ulasan didalam bahasa malaysia hanyalah sedikit ulasan sahaja.Untuk memahami fakta dan cara yang lebih baik sila lihat artikel didalam bahasa inggeris dan lihat link yang berkaitan untuk lebih memahaminya.

Koujou Kengaku atau Factory Tour

Adalah menjadi amalan yang baik kepada pengurusan atasan untuk sentiasa melawat bahagian pengeluaran bagi memastikan pengurusan dan pekerja dapat meransang perbincangan kedua pihak bagi mencari jalan dan makna untuk menambahbaik keadaan sekarang.Kedua-dua belah pihak perlu memainkan peranan dan perlu membuat tindakan yang perlu.

Antara perkara yang perlu dilihat oleh Pengurusan Atasan adalah :-

1-Pastikan keadaan kilang atau bengkel teratur –LIHAT kebersihan dan suasana kerja.

2-Melihat layout atau susun atur kilang,bengkel dan mesin.

3-Perhatikan pergerakkan bahan atau produk dan keseimbangan proses (line balancing)

4-Cara bahan dan produk dikendalikan

5-Standard Operasi (Operation standard ,Operating Instruction,Limit Sample etc)

6-Penggunaan peralatan dan jig yang cekap,fungsi-fungsi mekanikal dan automasi (automation)

7-Penyelengaraan mesin dan pengukuran peralatan (equipment calibration )

8-Inventori di tempat pengeluaran (production line),bahan dan peralatan.

9-Sikap dan motivasi pekerja (employee morale )

10-Pengurusan bilik setor (storage/warehouse management)

11- Mengurangkan bilangan penggunaan kertas (slips and chits)

12-Job description dan waktu bekerja bagi kerja tidak langsung (indirect work)

13-Kawalan Pengeluaran (Production control)

14-Jaminan Kualiti (Quality assurance)

15-Pemantauan ke atas subkontraktor (subcontractor monitoring)

16-Penyelenggaraan bangunan,jalan dan lain-lain kemudahan.

Pengurusan atasan perlu sentiasa melakukan pemantauan dengan melihat sendiri keadaan pengeluaran bukan hanya menjadikan data atau laporan bertulis sebagai panduan utama kerana besar kemungkinan data sampingan telah dipinda atau masalahnya telah diperkecilkan untuk menutup ruang bagi penambahbaikan’

Visual Management dan Management by Wandering Arounds adalah antara kaedah yang biasa dilakukan bagi memantau proses pengeluaran.

Pengurusan atasan perlu memastikan pengurus di pengeluaran tidak terlalu menekan kuantiti terhadap pekerja-pekerjanya sehingga menyebabkan banyak produk defek (defects),berlebihan (over production) dan tidak berkualiti atau berkualiti rendah dihasilkan yang sebenarnya merupakan ”time bomb” yang menunggu masa untuk meledak dan berpotensi menggugat survival syarikat.

Oleh kerana didalam konsep 4M (Man,Machine,Method,Material) hanya 1 M (Man ) –manusia sahaja yang mempunyai emosi dan mudah terpengaruh dengan gangguan maka adalah menjadi satu keperluan pengurusan atasan bagi sentiasa memenangi dan meningkatkan moral pekerja (employee morale).

Data atau Laporan Bertulis tidak menyertakan unsur emosi (emotions,feelings-sad ,happy,angry etc) jadi keputusan anda mungkin bukan keputusan yang baik didalam meningkat moral pekerja jika hanya bersandarkan kepada laporan bertulis itu sahaja.

INGAT-pencapaian organisasi yang cemerlang bergantung kepada gabungan usaha dan kerjasama setiap individu (energy +energy+....+ energy = synergy).

Adalah menjadi satu pendekatan yang baik bagi pihak pengurusan sentiasa mewujudkan kesan ”Howthorn Effect” dikalangan pekerja dan pengurusan dengan melaksanakan Koujou Kengaku/ Factory Tour.

Dengan melakukan pendekatan turun dan turut serta di bawah/pengeluaran,Pengurusan atasan dapat menyampaikan mesej dan polisi mereka dengan lebih tepat dan berkesan bagi memudahkan semua pihak untuk memahami dan bekerjasama bagi mencapai matlamat organisasi.

Jika pekerja sedia ada tidak berkemampuan mengubah cara kerja (5S dll) maka menjadi tanggungjawab pengurusan atasan untuk menyedarkan mereka.

Example from Manufacturing Sector

Annual Quality Cost -Tire manufacturer

1. Cost of quality failures -losses

a.Defective stock $3,276 0.37
b.Repairs to product 73,229 8.31
c.Collect scrap 2,288 0.26
d.Waste-scrap 187,428 21.26
e.Consumer adjustments 408,200 46.31
f.Downgrading products 22,838 2.59
g.Customer ill will Not counted
h.Customer policy adjustment Not counted
Total $697,259 79.10%

2. Cost of appraisal

a.Incoming inspection $23,655 2.68
b.Inspection 1 32,582 3.70
c.Inspection 2 25,200 2.86
d.Spot-check inspection 65,910 7.37
Total $147,347 16.61%

3.Cost of prevention

a.Local plant quality control engineering $7,848 0.89
b.Corporate quality control engineering 30,000 3.40
Total $37,848 4.29%
Grand total $882,454 100.00%

As a result of this study,management decided to increase the budget for prevention activities.Three engineers were assigned to identify and pursue specific quality improvement projects.

Prevention Costs.

These are cost incurred to keep failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.

1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training

Prevention Costs.

These are cost incurred to keep failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.

1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training

Appraisal Costs

These are the costs incurred to determine the degree of conformance to quality requirements.

1.Incoming inspection and test.
2.In-process inspection and test
3.Final inspection and test
4.Document review :Examination of paperwork to be sent to customer
5.Balancing:Examination of various accounts to assure internal consistency
6.Product quality audits
7.Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
8.Inspection and test materials and services : Materials and supplies in inspection and test work (e.g x-ray film) and services (e.g., electric power)
9.Evaluation of stocks :Testing products in field storage or in stock to evaluate degradation.

External Failure Costs.

This are costs associated with deficiencies that are found after product is received by the customer.Also included are lost opportunities for sales revenue.

Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs

1. Warranty charges
2.Complaint adjustment
3.Returned material
4.Allowances: The costs of concessions made to customers due to conforming product that does not meet customer needs.
5.Penalties due to poor quality
6.Rework on support operations : Correcting errors on billing and other external processes.
7.Revenue losses in support operations : An example is the failure to collect on receivables from some customers.

Lost Opportunities for Sales Revenue

1.Customer defections : contracts that are cancelled due to quality.
2.New customers lost because of quality : Profit on potential customers lost because of poor quality.
3.New customers lost because of lack of capability to meet customer needs.

Internal Failure Costs.

These are costs of deficiencies discovered before delivery which are associated with the failure (nonconformities) to meet explicit requirements or implicit needs of the external or internal customers.Also included are avoidable process losses and inefficiencies that occur even when requirements and needs are met.These are costs that would disappear if no deficiencies existed.

Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs.

1. Scrap
2.Rework
3.Lost or missing information
4.Failure analysis
5.Scrap and rework due to nonconforming product from supplier
6.100 % sorting inspection
7.Reinspection,retest
8.Changing processes to correct deficiencies
9.Redesign of hardware to correct deficiencies
10.Redesign of software to correct deficiencies.
11.Scrapping of obsolete product
12.Scrap in support operations:Defective items in indirect operations.
13.Rework in internal support operations
14.Downgrading:The difference between the normal selling price and the reduced price due to quality reasons.

Cost of Inefficient Processes

1.Variability of product characteristics
2.Unplanned downtime of equipment
3.Inventory shrinkage
4.Variation of process characteristics from "best practice" :Losses due to cycle time and costs of processes as compared to best practices in providing the same output.
5.Non-value-added activities

Alignment of Process to Customer Requirements.

In order to minimize customer losses,it is desirable to align the process (process center) with the customer requirement (specification target).

It is additionally beneficial to the customer if variation around the target value is continually reduced.

This practice is sometimes called aligning the "Voice of the Process" with the "Voice of the Customer".It should be noted that although no variation is assumed in the "Voice of the Customer" for this example,the "Voice of the Customer" (specification target) does vary in the real world and this further complicates achieving true customer satisfaction with a given process.

Finally,when an estimated translated loss is generated by considering the actual distribution of parts being produced by this process,in conjunction with the loss being generated by this process,it can be shown that,in this case,approximately only 45% of the total loss to the customer is being accounted for by the parts beyond specification,while the remaining loss is coming from parts within specification but not at the target.

This strongly suggests that the "Goal Post" mentality,or computing percentage of "Bad" parts (parts beyond specifications),in and of itself,does not provide a proper appreciation for understanding the effect the process is actually having on the customer.

Local actions and action on the system

Simple statistical process control techniques can detect special causes of variation.Discovering a special cause of variation and taking proper action is usually the responsibility of someone who is directly connected with the operation.Although management must sometimes be involved to correct the condition,the resolution of special cause of variation usually requires Local Action .This is especially true during the early process improvement efforts.As one succeeds in taking the proper action on special causes,those that remain will often require management action,rather than local action.

These same simple statistical techniques can also indicate the extent of common causes of variation,but the causes themselves need more detailed analysis to isolate.
The correction of these common causes of variation is usually the responsibility of management.Sometimes people directly connected with the operation will be in a better position to identify them and pass them on to management for action.Overall,though,the resolution of common causes of variation usually requires action on the system.

Only a relatively small proportion of excessive process variation-industrial experience suggests about 15%-is correctable locally by people directly connected with the operation.The majority-the other 85%-is correctable only by management action on the system.

Confusion about the type of action to take is very costly to the organization,in terms of wasted effort,delayed resolution of trouble,and aggravated problems.It may be wrong,for example,to take local action (e.g., adjusting a machine)when management action on the system is required (e.g., selecting suppliers that provide consistent input materials).

Variation : Common and Special Causes

No two products or characteristics are exactly alike,because any process contains many sources of variability.The differences among products may be larger,or they may be immeasurably small,but they are always present.The diameter of a machined shaft,for instance,would be susceptible to potential variation from the machine (clearance, bearing wear),tool (strength, rate of wear),material(diameter,hardness),operator(part feed,accuracy of centering),maintenance (lubrication, replacement of worn parts),and environment (temperature,constancy of power supply).

Some sources of variation in the process cause short-term,piece-to-piece differences eg.,backlash and clearance within a machine and its fixturing, or the accuracy of a bookkeeper's work.
Other sources of variation tend to cause changes in the output only over a longer period of time,either gradually as with tool or machine wear,step-wise as with procedural changes,or irregularly,as with environmental changes such as power surges.Therefore,the time period and conditions over which measurements are made will affect the amount of the total variation that will be present.

The distribution can be characterized by

1-Location
2- Spread (span of values from smallest to largest)
3-Shape (the pattern of variation-whether it is symmetrical,skewed,etc.)

Common causes refer to the many sources of variation within a process that has a stable and repeatable distribution over time.This is called "in a state of statistical control".Common causes behave like a stable system of chance causes.If only common causes of variation are present and do not change,the output of a process is predictable.

Special causes (often called assignable causes) refer to any factors causing variation that are not always acting on the process.That is,when they occur,they make the (overall) process distribution change.Unless all the special causes of variation are identified and acted upon,they will continue to affect the process output in unpredictable ways.If special causes of variation are present,the process output is not stable over time.

Occurrence

Occurrence ( O ) : Occurrence is the likelihood that a specific cause/mechanism of failure will occur.The likelihood of occurrence ranking number has relative meaning rather than an absolute value.Preventing or controlling the causes/mechanisms of failure through a design or process change is the only way a reduction in the occurrence ranking can be effected.

Table 2. Suggested Process Failure ‘s Occurrence Evaluation Criteria

Probability	Likely Failure Rates	Ranking
Very High : Persistent Failures	≥ 100 per thousand pieces	10
	50 per thousand pieces	9
High : Frequent Failures	20 per thousand pieces	8
	10 per thousand pieces	7
Moderate: Occasional Failures	5 per thousand pieces	6
	2 per thousand pieces	5
Low: Relatively Few Failures	1 per thousand pieces	4
	0.5 per thousand pieces	3
Remote:Failure is Unlikely	0.1 per thousand pieces	2
	≤0.01 per thousand pieces	1

Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.

Risk Priority Number (RPN

Risk Priority Number (RPN): The risk priority number is the product of the severity (S), occurrence (O),and detection (D) rankings.

(S) x (O) x(D) =RPN

The value is between 1 and 1000 can be used to rank order the concerns in the process.
Engineering assessment for preventive/corrective action should be first directed at high severity, high RPN, and other items designated by the team.

The intent of any recommended action is to reduce rankings in the following order: severity, occurrence , and detection.

In general practice, when the severity is 9 or 10, special attention must be given to ensure that the risk is addressed through existing design actions/controls or process preventive/corrective action(s),regardless of the RPN. In all cases where the effect of an identified potential failure could be a hazard to manufacturing/assembly personnel, preventive/corrective actions should be taken to avoid the failure by eliminating or controlling the cause(s), or appropriate operator protection should b e specified.

After special attention has been given to severity rankings of 9 or 10,the team then addresses other failure, with the intent of reducing severity, then occurrence, and then detection.
Actions such as, but not limited to, the following should be considered:

1-To reduce the probability of occurrence, process and/or design revisions are required. An action-oriented study of the process using statistical methods could be implemented with an ongoing feedback of information to the appropriate operations for continuous improvement and defect prevention.

2-Only a design and/or process revision can bring about a reduction in the severity ranking.

3-The preferred method to accomplish a reduction in the detection ranking is the use of error/mistake proofing methods. Generally , improving detection controls is costly and ineffective for quality improvements. Emphasis must, however, be placed on preventing defects rather than detecting them. An example would be the use of statistical control and process improvement rather than random quality checks or associated inspection.



Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.

How to categorize Process Failure by Severity Ranking

Table1.Suggested Process Failure’s Severity Evaluation Criteria

Effect	Criteria: Severity of Effect This ranking results when a potential failure results in a final customer and/or a manufacturing/assembly plant defect. The final customer should always be considered first. If both occur,use the higher of the two severities. (Customer Effect)	Criteria: Severity of Effect This ranking results when a potential failure results in a final customer and/or a manufacturing/assembly plant defect. The final customer should always be considered first. If both occur,use the higher of the two severities. (Manufacturing / Assembly Effect )	Ranking
Hazardous without warning	Very high severity ranking when a potential failure affects safe product operation and/or involves noncompliance with government regulation without warning	Or may endanger operator (machine or assembly ) without warning	10
Hazardous with warnings	Very high severity ranking when a potential failure affects safe product operation and/or involves noncompliance with government regulation with warning	Or may endanger operator (machine or assembly) with warning	9
Very High	Product or item inoperable (loss of primary function)	Or 100% of product may have to be scrapped, or product / item repaired in repair department with a repair time greater than one hour.	8
High	Product or item operable but at a reduced level of performance. Customer very dissatisfied	Or product may have to be sorted and a portion (less than 100%) scrapped, or product/item repaired in repair department with a repair time between a half-hour and an hour	7
Moderate	Product or item operable but Comfort/Convenience item(s) inoperable. Customer dissatisfied.	Or a portion(less than100%) of the product may have to scrapped with no sorting,or product/item repaired in repair department with a repair time less than a half-hour.	6
Low	Product or item operable but Comfort/Convenience item(s) operable at a reduced level of performance.	Or 100% of product may have to be reworked, or product/item repaired off-line but does not go to repair department.	5
Very Low	Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by most customers (greater than 75%)	Or the product may have to be sorted, with no scrap, and a portion(less than 100%) reworked.	4
Minor	Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by 50% of customers.	Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product may have to be reworked, with no scrap, on-line but out-of-station	3
Very Minor	Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by discriminating customers (less than 25%).	Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product may have to be reworked, with no scrap, on-line but in-station.	2
None	No discernible effect	Or slight inconvenience to operation or operator, or no effect.	1

Note : It is not recommended to modify criteria for ranking values of 9 and 10.Failure with a rank of severity 1 should not be analyzed further.

Severity (S) : Severity is the rank associated with the most serious effect for a given failure. A reduction in severity ranking index can be effected through a design change to system,subsystem or component,or a redesign of the process.

Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.

Detection

Detection (D) : Detection is the rank associated with the best detection control listed in the process control. In order to achieve a lower ranking, generally the planned process control has to be improved.

Assumed the failure has occurred and then assess the capabilities of all “Current Process Controls” to prevent shipment of the part having this failure or defect. Do not automatically presume that the detection ranking is low because the occurrence is low, but do assess the ability of the process controls to detect low frequency failure or prevent them from going further in the process.

Random quality checks are unlikely to detect the existence of an isolated defect and should not influence the detection ranking. Sampling done on statistical basis is a valid detection control.

Table 3. Suggested Process Failure’s Detection Evaluation Criteria

Detection	Criteria	Inspection Types			Suggested Range of Detection Methods	Ranking
		A	B	C
Almost Impossible	Absolute certainty of non detection			X	Cannot detect or is not checked	10
Very Remote	Controls will probably not detect			X	Control is achieved with indirect or random checks only	9
Remote	Controls have poor chance of detection.			X	Control is achieved with visual inspection only.	8
Very Low	Controls have poor chance of detection.			X	Control is achieved with double visual inspection only.	7
Low	Controls may detect		X	X	Control is achieved with charting methods, such as SPC.	6
Moderate	Controls may detect		X		Control is based on variable gauging after parts have left the station, or Go/No Go gauging performed on 100% of the parts after parts have left the station.	5
Moderately High	Controls have a good chance to detect	X	X		Error detection in subsequent operations, OR gauging performed on setup and first-piece check (for set-up causes only)	4
High	Controls have a good chance to detect	X	X		Error detection in-station, or error detection in subsequent operations by multiple layers of acceptance: supply, select, install, verify. Cannot accept discrepant part.	3
Very High	Controls almost certain to detect.	X	X		Error detection in-station (automatic gauging with automatic stop feature).Cannot pass discrepant part.	2
Very High	Controls certain to detect.	X			Discrepant parts cannot be made because item has been error-proofed by process/product design.	1

Inspection Types :

A . Error-proofed

B. Gauging

C. Manual Inspection

Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.