Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Inherent dislike for work and will attempt to avoid it
Must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment
Will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
Place security above all factors and will display little ambition
Theory Y
View work as being as natural as rest or play
Will exercise self-direction and self-control if committed to objectives
Can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility
Can make innovative decisions on their own
Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factors affect job dissatisfaction
Quality of supervision
Pay
Company policies
Physical working conditions
Relations with others
Job security
Motivator factors affect job satisfaction
Promotional opportunities
Opportunities for personal growth
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement
Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation.
If a manager wants to motivate people on their jobs, he should emphasize factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.
McClelland's Theory of Needs
Need for achievement (nAch)- drive to excel
Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
High achievers prefer jobs with personal responsibility, feedback, and intermediate degree of risk
High achievers are not necessarily good managers.
Low need for affiliation and high need for power closely related to managerial success
Employees can be trained to stimulate their achievement need.
Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards for work that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, while tangible rewards undermine it
Goal-Setting Theory
Specific goals lead to increased performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher output than easy goals.
Self-generated feedback is a more powerful motivator than externally generated feedback.
Influences on goal-performance relationship:
Commitment
Task characteristics
National culture
Management by Objectives (MBO)
Converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for work units and individuals
Common ingredients:
Goal specificity
Participation in decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback
Self-Efficacy Theory
Refers to an individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task
Ways self-efficacy can be increased:
Enactive mastery – gain experience
Vicarious modeling – see someone else do the task
Verbal persuasion – someone convinces you that you have the skills
Arousal – get energized
Equity Theory
Employees weigh what they put into a job situation (input) against what they get from it (outcome).
Then they compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant others.
Theories are Often Culture-Bound
Most motivation theories were developed in the U.S. by Americans and about Americans
Not all cultures have the same characteristics as American culture
Many cultures desire interesting work and other factors
Implications for Managers
Look beyond need theories
Goal setting leads to higher productivity
Organizational justice has support
Expectancy theory’s power in explaining productivity increases
Wednesday, November 18, 2009
Thursday, November 12, 2009
Benefits of Empowerment
Numerous positive behaviors may be observed among the members of empowered teams.They often:
1-Focus to satisfy the organization's purpose such as satisfying the customer and achieving financial objectives rather than trying to satisfy the supervisors.They talk about customer and business needs and the team's performance toward meeting those needs.They will question management when reasons for objectives are not clear.They want to know the why as well as the what.They will not afraid to question or offer suggestions to management because they work for the interests of the business and their customers.
2-Behave more as owners of the organization.Often employees do task which are not in the job description.They eagerly monitor performance indicators because doing so make them achieve their target and aims.Experienced member teach new employee proactively by sharing their ideas and suggestions to ensure everybody give their full strength to achieve team performance. Behaviors of this sort are evidence that team members feel responsible for the success of the organization,and prefer to take responsibility rather than abdicating that responsibility to the boss.
3-More Entrepreneurial and innovative.If they see a problem,they will energetically try to solve it.They freely seek to implement their ideas,and are willing to try new techniques which may yield improvements.Members are often observed constructively building on ideas from each other in search of solutions to problems.
4-Communicate well within the team as well as outside the team.Open communications are key in all of the above examples.
1-Focus to satisfy the organization's purpose such as satisfying the customer and achieving financial objectives rather than trying to satisfy the supervisors.They talk about customer and business needs and the team's performance toward meeting those needs.They will question management when reasons for objectives are not clear.They want to know the why as well as the what.They will not afraid to question or offer suggestions to management because they work for the interests of the business and their customers.
2-Behave more as owners of the organization.Often employees do task which are not in the job description.They eagerly monitor performance indicators because doing so make them achieve their target and aims.Experienced member teach new employee proactively by sharing their ideas and suggestions to ensure everybody give their full strength to achieve team performance. Behaviors of this sort are evidence that team members feel responsible for the success of the organization,and prefer to take responsibility rather than abdicating that responsibility to the boss.
3-More Entrepreneurial and innovative.If they see a problem,they will energetically try to solve it.They freely seek to implement their ideas,and are willing to try new techniques which may yield improvements.Members are often observed constructively building on ideas from each other in search of solutions to problems.
4-Communicate well within the team as well as outside the team.Open communications are key in all of the above examples.
Freedom from Fear
Ideas and feedback from employees are essential.These can only come when employees feel they can give their comments without exposure to blame,reprisals,or other consequences administered by a management.Employees feared their ideas might be ridiculed or cause others to view them as troublemakers.
Fear that management will view any negative comment as adverse is a powerful disincentive for employees to provide suggestions,challenge the status quo,or to offer accurate and honest feedback.
This sort of fear prevent people from making improvements suggestions,employees fear that their suggestions will be viewed as criticism of managerial practices.
Fear also cause people distance away from working to improve efficiency,they may believe that such activities will cause job elimination.
Fear of reprisal to an employee who makes a mistake may caused employee to cover up their mistake and make them deliver low quality product to customers.
It has been estimated that more than 80% of quality problems are caused by management action,whereby less than 20% caused by worker error.More than 80% problem causes rooted from managerial control-the systems,procedures,policies,equipment,etc.
It requires substantial effort and cultural change to replace this fear with open communication.
There are too many new skill to learn and to many old habits to overcome.
Fear that management will view any negative comment as adverse is a powerful disincentive for employees to provide suggestions,challenge the status quo,or to offer accurate and honest feedback.
This sort of fear prevent people from making improvements suggestions,employees fear that their suggestions will be viewed as criticism of managerial practices.
Fear also cause people distance away from working to improve efficiency,they may believe that such activities will cause job elimination.
Fear of reprisal to an employee who makes a mistake may caused employee to cover up their mistake and make them deliver low quality product to customers.
It has been estimated that more than 80% of quality problems are caused by management action,whereby less than 20% caused by worker error.More than 80% problem causes rooted from managerial control-the systems,procedures,policies,equipment,etc.
It requires substantial effort and cultural change to replace this fear with open communication.
There are too many new skill to learn and to many old habits to overcome.
Monday, November 9, 2009
Plant Management
The plant
The factory
The place where products are made
The business strategy
The location
Dedication: The focused factory
Operations
Products
Processes
Communication
The Focused Factory
Product focused: production is organized around the type of product/service being produced, i.e. assembly line.
Process focused: production is grouped according to type of processes, i.e. batch production.
Alignment with Business strategy
Focus:
Low manufacturing cost through automation and technological superiority
High flexibility through lean operations
High volume through mass manufacturing
Alignment with Location
Location, Location, Location.
Location is strategic important to ensure low cost in shipping and transportation and logistics
Alignment with Strategic Partners
Proximity and communication with suppliers and strategic partners
Operations Management
The business activity that transforms inputs into outputs of greater value.
(Russell, 2002)
The business activity that involves the design, development, and maintenance of systems and processes that transform resources, such as raw materials, technology, and labor into goods and services that meet customers’ needs.
(Raturi, 2005)
Operations Management
The product
Tangible goods
It defines strategic objectives and decisions, customers, market and, of course, profit to an organization.
An effective product development approach offers 3 key benefits:
Market position
Resource utilization
Organization renewal and enhancement
The process
A set of activities that is arranged in sequence and taken together to produce a result of value to the customer.
It constitutes what can an organization do better than the rest of other players in the industry.
It defines the organization’s capability and the way it chooses to be in the marketplace.
Current Issues
Effectively consolidating the operations resulting from mergers
Developing flexible supply chains to enable mass customization of products and services
Managing global supplier, production and distribution networks
Increased “commoditization” of suppliers
Achieving the “Service Factory”
Enhancing value added services
Making efficient use of Internet technology
Achieving good service from service firms
Expectation
Excellent performance in:
Personnel safety
Process safety
Environmental
Product Quality
Reliability
Energy and other variable cost efficiency
Fixed cost
Staffing levels
The factory
The place where products are made
The business strategy
The location
Dedication: The focused factory
Operations
Products
Processes
Communication
The Focused Factory
Product focused: production is organized around the type of product/service being produced, i.e. assembly line.
Process focused: production is grouped according to type of processes, i.e. batch production.
Alignment with Business strategy
Focus:
Low manufacturing cost through automation and technological superiority
High flexibility through lean operations
High volume through mass manufacturing
Alignment with Location
Location, Location, Location.
Location is strategic important to ensure low cost in shipping and transportation and logistics
Alignment with Strategic Partners
Proximity and communication with suppliers and strategic partners
Operations Management
The business activity that transforms inputs into outputs of greater value.
(Russell, 2002)
The business activity that involves the design, development, and maintenance of systems and processes that transform resources, such as raw materials, technology, and labor into goods and services that meet customers’ needs.
(Raturi, 2005)
Operations Management
The product
Tangible goods
It defines strategic objectives and decisions, customers, market and, of course, profit to an organization.
An effective product development approach offers 3 key benefits:
Market position
Resource utilization
Organization renewal and enhancement
The process
A set of activities that is arranged in sequence and taken together to produce a result of value to the customer.
It constitutes what can an organization do better than the rest of other players in the industry.
It defines the organization’s capability and the way it chooses to be in the marketplace.
Current Issues
Effectively consolidating the operations resulting from mergers
Developing flexible supply chains to enable mass customization of products and services
Managing global supplier, production and distribution networks
Increased “commoditization” of suppliers
Achieving the “Service Factory”
Enhancing value added services
Making efficient use of Internet technology
Achieving good service from service firms
Expectation
Excellent performance in:
Personnel safety
Process safety
Environmental
Product Quality
Reliability
Energy and other variable cost efficiency
Fixed cost
Staffing levels
Friday, October 30, 2009
Kaizen
Kaizen jika diterjemahkan secara kasar bermaksud penambahbaikan.
Kaizen jika didalam bahasa jepun dibahagikan kepada 2 bahagian iaitu "kai" yang berasal daripada perkataan "aratameru" yang bermaksud memperbaharui atau memperbaiki,dan "zen"
yang menjadi tanda pencapaian tertinggi atau kesempurnaan didalam agama buddha.
Jadi secara ringkasnya kaizen lebih bermaksud memperbaharui sesuatu (produk,perkhidmatan dll) supaya menjadi lebih sempurna (tiada cacat cela atau komplen)yang perlu dilaksanakan terus menerus tanpa ada titik penamatnya.
Tambahkan sehingga baik dengan baharukan sehingga sempurna adalah dua kaedah yang berbeza.Sebab itulah ekonomi dan produk negara Jepun,Korea dll sentiasa menjadi trend terbaru sedangkan produk kita menjuarai trend terkebelakang.Kenapa?Disebabkan kita hanya menambah baik produk kita maka kita tidak melakukannya berterusan,maka produk yang baik hari ini akan menjadi "obselete" keesokan harinya.Jika produk kita diperbaharui hari ini dan esok dan seterusnya maka kita akan menjadi peneraju trend dan bukannya pengikut trend atau paling malang ketinggalan zaman.
Oleh itu laksanakan Kaizen dengan cara yang sebenarnya dan lupakan penambahbaikan atau Improvement.Ia sebenarnya bukan kaizen yang difahami oleh negara maju.
Kaizen jika didalam bahasa jepun dibahagikan kepada 2 bahagian iaitu "kai" yang berasal daripada perkataan "aratameru" yang bermaksud memperbaharui atau memperbaiki,dan "zen"
yang menjadi tanda pencapaian tertinggi atau kesempurnaan didalam agama buddha.
Jadi secara ringkasnya kaizen lebih bermaksud memperbaharui sesuatu (produk,perkhidmatan dll) supaya menjadi lebih sempurna (tiada cacat cela atau komplen)yang perlu dilaksanakan terus menerus tanpa ada titik penamatnya.
Tambahkan sehingga baik dengan baharukan sehingga sempurna adalah dua kaedah yang berbeza.Sebab itulah ekonomi dan produk negara Jepun,Korea dll sentiasa menjadi trend terbaru sedangkan produk kita menjuarai trend terkebelakang.Kenapa?Disebabkan kita hanya menambah baik produk kita maka kita tidak melakukannya berterusan,maka produk yang baik hari ini akan menjadi "obselete" keesokan harinya.Jika produk kita diperbaharui hari ini dan esok dan seterusnya maka kita akan menjadi peneraju trend dan bukannya pengikut trend atau paling malang ketinggalan zaman.
Oleh itu laksanakan Kaizen dengan cara yang sebenarnya dan lupakan penambahbaikan atau Improvement.Ia sebenarnya bukan kaizen yang difahami oleh negara maju.
Break down barriers between departments (optimize the efforts of team).
Break down barriers between departments (optimize the efforts of team).
Di dalam memastikan kecekapan dan keberkesanan semua pihak didalam sesebuah organisasi maka segala halangan dan rintangan antara bahagian atau jabatan perlulah dihapuskan.Sebenarnya sudah menjadi lumrah setiap bahagian berusaha bersungguh-sungguh menjayakan target atau sasaran bahagian masing-masing biarpun kesannya menyebabkan bahagian yang lain menerima kesan yang buruk.
Sebagai contohnya,bahagian purchasing yang sentiasa mencari ruang untuk mengurangkan kos tanpa memperdulikan kualiti pembekal menyebabkan bahagian pengeluaran menanggung segala akibatnya.Ketika bahagian purchasing berbangga dengan penjimatan kos, bahagian pengeluaran pula dipaksa menanggung kos berlebihan disebabkan kualiti bahan mentah telah berkurangan.
Tetapi pada akhirnya syarikat yang menanggung kerugian kerana sudah tentu penjimatan kos bahan mentah tidak dapat mengatasi kerugian yang ditanggung oleh bahagian pengeluaran disebabkan oleh peningkatan kos daripada kemerosotan kualiti.
Contoh kedua pula,dimana pihak R&D cuba memperkenalkan kaedah,model,cara pengeluaran yang baru bagi meningkatkan daya saing produk syarikat tetapi ditentang oleh bahagian QC kerana kaedah atau model tersebut banyak menghasilkan defek.Sebenarnya apa yang dikatakan oleh QC adalah benar berasaskan keadaan kualiti semasa ,tetapi bahagian QC tidak seharusnya menentang segala idea dan inovasi baru dan menekankan konsep "status quo" cuba mengekalkan keadaan sedia ada yang pada masa terdekat akan menyebabkan produk kita tidak diterima pakai oleh pengguna baru dan sedia ada yang sentiasa inginkan produk berkualiti tetapi terbaru dan dengan aplikasi yang lebih canggih.Selalunya adalah menjadi satu dasar syarikat apabila didalam proses mereka produk baru bahagian QC tidak dilibatkan sehinggalah ke peringkat pre production.Penglibatan QC pada proses pre-production adalah bagi memastikan defek dan segala kekurangan dapat diatasi dan ditambahbaikan.
Syarikat perlu memastikan setiap bahagian bekerjasama dan mempunyai satu target sahaja iaitu memastikan syarikat dan produk kita survive dan bukannya merangka target berlainan bagi setiap bahagian yang menyebabkan survival syarikat ditenggelamkan oleh kepentingan dan KPI bahagian masing-masing.Apabila satu bahagian berjaya mencapai target dan satu bahagian lagi tidak ,maka secara puratanya(pencapaian setiap bahagian di campur dan dijumlahkan semuanya) syarikat tidak kehadapan sebaliknya kekal disitu (o )atau berundur kebelakang(negatif).
Alangkah baiknya setiap kelebihan bahagian masing-masing (yang optima)digunakan bagi mencari jalan bagi mencapai kejayaan untuk syarikat.
Pengurusan yang baik tidak seharusnya menekan bahagian masing-masing bagi mencapai target tertentu sebaliknya menekankan satu target untuk dicapai oleh semua sebagai satu kumpulan.Sebenarnya bahagian yang mencapai target tidak bermaksud semuapekerjanya cekap dan bertanggungjawab tetapi mungkin melakukannya dengan cara "over do/over capacity" yang merupakan racun yang akan membunuh syarikat pada masa terdekat.Produk tidak berkualiti tidak mungkin menghasilkan produk yang diterima pelanggan pada jangka masa panjang.Keuntungan jangka pendek bukanlah kejayaan sebaliknya jalan kebinasaan pada masa hadapan.Masyarakat yang menerima produk berkualiti rendah pada masa sekarang akan menjadi pengguna yang mementingkan kualiti pada masa hadapan.
Di dalam memastikan kecekapan dan keberkesanan semua pihak didalam sesebuah organisasi maka segala halangan dan rintangan antara bahagian atau jabatan perlulah dihapuskan.Sebenarnya sudah menjadi lumrah setiap bahagian berusaha bersungguh-sungguh menjayakan target atau sasaran bahagian masing-masing biarpun kesannya menyebabkan bahagian yang lain menerima kesan yang buruk.
Sebagai contohnya,bahagian purchasing yang sentiasa mencari ruang untuk mengurangkan kos tanpa memperdulikan kualiti pembekal menyebabkan bahagian pengeluaran menanggung segala akibatnya.Ketika bahagian purchasing berbangga dengan penjimatan kos, bahagian pengeluaran pula dipaksa menanggung kos berlebihan disebabkan kualiti bahan mentah telah berkurangan.
Tetapi pada akhirnya syarikat yang menanggung kerugian kerana sudah tentu penjimatan kos bahan mentah tidak dapat mengatasi kerugian yang ditanggung oleh bahagian pengeluaran disebabkan oleh peningkatan kos daripada kemerosotan kualiti.
Contoh kedua pula,dimana pihak R&D cuba memperkenalkan kaedah,model,cara pengeluaran yang baru bagi meningkatkan daya saing produk syarikat tetapi ditentang oleh bahagian QC kerana kaedah atau model tersebut banyak menghasilkan defek.Sebenarnya apa yang dikatakan oleh QC adalah benar berasaskan keadaan kualiti semasa ,tetapi bahagian QC tidak seharusnya menentang segala idea dan inovasi baru dan menekankan konsep "status quo" cuba mengekalkan keadaan sedia ada yang pada masa terdekat akan menyebabkan produk kita tidak diterima pakai oleh pengguna baru dan sedia ada yang sentiasa inginkan produk berkualiti tetapi terbaru dan dengan aplikasi yang lebih canggih.Selalunya adalah menjadi satu dasar syarikat apabila didalam proses mereka produk baru bahagian QC tidak dilibatkan sehinggalah ke peringkat pre production.Penglibatan QC pada proses pre-production adalah bagi memastikan defek dan segala kekurangan dapat diatasi dan ditambahbaikan.
Syarikat perlu memastikan setiap bahagian bekerjasama dan mempunyai satu target sahaja iaitu memastikan syarikat dan produk kita survive dan bukannya merangka target berlainan bagi setiap bahagian yang menyebabkan survival syarikat ditenggelamkan oleh kepentingan dan KPI bahagian masing-masing.Apabila satu bahagian berjaya mencapai target dan satu bahagian lagi tidak ,maka secara puratanya(pencapaian setiap bahagian di campur dan dijumlahkan semuanya) syarikat tidak kehadapan sebaliknya kekal disitu (o )atau berundur kebelakang(negatif).
Alangkah baiknya setiap kelebihan bahagian masing-masing (yang optima)digunakan bagi mencari jalan bagi mencapai kejayaan untuk syarikat.
Pengurusan yang baik tidak seharusnya menekan bahagian masing-masing bagi mencapai target tertentu sebaliknya menekankan satu target untuk dicapai oleh semua sebagai satu kumpulan.Sebenarnya bahagian yang mencapai target tidak bermaksud semuapekerjanya cekap dan bertanggungjawab tetapi mungkin melakukannya dengan cara "over do/over capacity" yang merupakan racun yang akan membunuh syarikat pada masa terdekat.Produk tidak berkualiti tidak mungkin menghasilkan produk yang diterima pelanggan pada jangka masa panjang.Keuntungan jangka pendek bukanlah kejayaan sebaliknya jalan kebinasaan pada masa hadapan.Masyarakat yang menerima produk berkualiti rendah pada masa sekarang akan menjadi pengguna yang mementingkan kualiti pada masa hadapan.
Friday, October 23, 2009
Kepentingan Memastikan Pekerja Berbangga dengan hasil kerja mereka.
Sudah menjadi kebiasaan dan lumrah (walaupun sebenarnya salah) pekerja bawahan selalu ditekan untuk mencapai target yang selalunya berkaitrapat dengan peratusan output/kuantiti (numerical target).
Ini menyebabkan elemen 4M (Man,Machine,Material,Method) digunakan melebihi kadar penggunaan biasa (standard) selalunya melebihi kapasiti (over capacity ,over use ).
4M jika digunakan pada kadar berlebihan (over use ) akan menyebabkan faktor Muri (over capacity) berlaku maka kesannya berlakulah ketidakstabilan proses Mura (fluctuation) dimana kesan akhirnya adalah kemerosotan kualiti dan pembaziran Muda (waste)
Sebagai contoh:
Situasi A
Kapasiti pengeluaran harian : 2000 buah produk
Kita memaksa operator mengeluarkan 2100 buah produk atau tambahan 100 buah produk daripada kapasiti pengeluaran asal.Oleh sebab elemen 4M dipaksa digunakan pada kadar yang melampau maka hasil produk yang berkualiti telah jatuh kepada 1900 sahaja.Berapa sebenarnya kerugian kita?
200 produk telah merosot kualitinya disebabkan oleh faktor over capacity tadi.Jadi kenapa membazir masa,tenaga,bahan mentah dan pemantauan hanya untuk menghasilkan 200 produk defek?Tidakkah kita sedar bahawa kita telah membazir dengan banyaknya hanya kerana pentingkan kuantiti.
Situasi B
Katakan pelanggan hanya mahukan 2000 produk kita hanya mampu hasilkan 1900 produk sahaja tetapi semuanya elok dan berkualiti.
Walaupun kita tidak mencapai sasaran adakah kemarahan pelanggan terhadap kita bagi kedua-dua situasi adalah sama?Bagi situasi A penghantaran (delivery) adalah mencukupi tetapi terdapat produk yang defek atau berkualiti rendah berbanding situasi B,penghantaran kurang semuanya berkualiti dan baik.
Bagi pelanggan (internal customer) di bahagian pengeluaran 100% produk yang baik dan berkualiti lebih disukai berbanding 100% penghantaran (delivery ) yang tepat.Ini kerana bahagian pengeluaran tidak perlu menghadapi masalah ”line stop” hanya kerana terjumpanya produk defek sehingga menganggu perancangan pengeluaran dan pembaziran yang lebih besar.Material yang kurang berkualiti menyebabkan kos kemerosotan kuality (Quality lost costs) meningkat tinggi.
Kaedah JIT & Kanban (bunyi kamban) atau pull system boleh digunakan bertujuan mengurangkan inventori,mengelakkan pengeluaran dalam keadaan ”over capacity” dan bagi mengurangkan kos kemerosotan kualiti dan pengurangan kos keseluruhan.
Oleh itu tingkatkan kapasiti pengeluaran 3M lain dahulu sebelum mendesak pekerja meningkatkan produktiviti.Denngan mengubah keadaan sistem (kapasiti) sahajalah produktiviti (termasuk kualiti) sebenar dapat ditingkatkan.
Nota:Segala ulasan didalam bahasa malaysia hanyalah sedikit ulasan sahaja.Untuk memahami fakta dan cara yang lebih baik sila lihat artikel didalam bahasa inggeris dan lihat link yang berkaitan untuk lebih memahaminya.
Ini menyebabkan elemen 4M (Man,Machine,Material,Method) digunakan melebihi kadar penggunaan biasa (standard) selalunya melebihi kapasiti (over capacity ,over use ).
4M jika digunakan pada kadar berlebihan (over use ) akan menyebabkan faktor Muri (over capacity) berlaku maka kesannya berlakulah ketidakstabilan proses Mura (fluctuation) dimana kesan akhirnya adalah kemerosotan kualiti dan pembaziran Muda (waste)
Sebagai contoh:
Situasi A
Kapasiti pengeluaran harian : 2000 buah produk
Kita memaksa operator mengeluarkan 2100 buah produk atau tambahan 100 buah produk daripada kapasiti pengeluaran asal.Oleh sebab elemen 4M dipaksa digunakan pada kadar yang melampau maka hasil produk yang berkualiti telah jatuh kepada 1900 sahaja.Berapa sebenarnya kerugian kita?
200 produk telah merosot kualitinya disebabkan oleh faktor over capacity tadi.Jadi kenapa membazir masa,tenaga,bahan mentah dan pemantauan hanya untuk menghasilkan 200 produk defek?Tidakkah kita sedar bahawa kita telah membazir dengan banyaknya hanya kerana pentingkan kuantiti.
Situasi B
Katakan pelanggan hanya mahukan 2000 produk kita hanya mampu hasilkan 1900 produk sahaja tetapi semuanya elok dan berkualiti.
Walaupun kita tidak mencapai sasaran adakah kemarahan pelanggan terhadap kita bagi kedua-dua situasi adalah sama?Bagi situasi A penghantaran (delivery) adalah mencukupi tetapi terdapat produk yang defek atau berkualiti rendah berbanding situasi B,penghantaran kurang semuanya berkualiti dan baik.
Bagi pelanggan (internal customer) di bahagian pengeluaran 100% produk yang baik dan berkualiti lebih disukai berbanding 100% penghantaran (delivery ) yang tepat.Ini kerana bahagian pengeluaran tidak perlu menghadapi masalah ”line stop” hanya kerana terjumpanya produk defek sehingga menganggu perancangan pengeluaran dan pembaziran yang lebih besar.Material yang kurang berkualiti menyebabkan kos kemerosotan kuality (Quality lost costs) meningkat tinggi.
Kaedah JIT & Kanban (bunyi kamban) atau pull system boleh digunakan bertujuan mengurangkan inventori,mengelakkan pengeluaran dalam keadaan ”over capacity” dan bagi mengurangkan kos kemerosotan kualiti dan pengurangan kos keseluruhan.
Oleh itu tingkatkan kapasiti pengeluaran 3M lain dahulu sebelum mendesak pekerja meningkatkan produktiviti.Denngan mengubah keadaan sistem (kapasiti) sahajalah produktiviti (termasuk kualiti) sebenar dapat ditingkatkan.
Nota:Segala ulasan didalam bahasa malaysia hanyalah sedikit ulasan sahaja.Untuk memahami fakta dan cara yang lebih baik sila lihat artikel didalam bahasa inggeris dan lihat link yang berkaitan untuk lebih memahaminya.
Koujou Kengaku atau Factory Tour
Adalah menjadi amalan yang baik kepada pengurusan atasan untuk sentiasa melawat bahagian pengeluaran bagi memastikan pengurusan dan pekerja dapat meransang perbincangan kedua pihak bagi mencari jalan dan makna untuk menambahbaik keadaan sekarang.Kedua-dua belah pihak perlu memainkan peranan dan perlu membuat tindakan yang perlu.
Antara perkara yang perlu dilihat oleh Pengurusan Atasan adalah :-
1-Pastikan keadaan kilang atau bengkel teratur –LIHAT kebersihan dan suasana kerja.
2-Melihat layout atau susun atur kilang,bengkel dan mesin.
3-Perhatikan pergerakkan bahan atau produk dan keseimbangan proses (line balancing)
4-Cara bahan dan produk dikendalikan
5-Standard Operasi (Operation standard ,Operating Instruction,Limit Sample etc)
6-Penggunaan peralatan dan jig yang cekap,fungsi-fungsi mekanikal dan automasi (automation)
7-Penyelengaraan mesin dan pengukuran peralatan (equipment calibration )
8-Inventori di tempat pengeluaran (production line),bahan dan peralatan.
9-Sikap dan motivasi pekerja (employee morale )
10-Pengurusan bilik setor (storage/warehouse management)
11- Mengurangkan bilangan penggunaan kertas (slips and chits)
12-Job description dan waktu bekerja bagi kerja tidak langsung (indirect work)
13-Kawalan Pengeluaran (Production control)
14-Jaminan Kualiti (Quality assurance)
15-Pemantauan ke atas subkontraktor (subcontractor monitoring)
16-Penyelenggaraan bangunan,jalan dan lain-lain kemudahan.
Pengurusan atasan perlu sentiasa melakukan pemantauan dengan melihat sendiri keadaan pengeluaran bukan hanya menjadikan data atau laporan bertulis sebagai panduan utama kerana besar kemungkinan data sampingan telah dipinda atau masalahnya telah diperkecilkan untuk menutup ruang bagi penambahbaikan’
Visual Management dan Management by Wandering Arounds adalah antara kaedah yang biasa dilakukan bagi memantau proses pengeluaran.
Pengurusan atasan perlu memastikan pengurus di pengeluaran tidak terlalu menekan kuantiti terhadap pekerja-pekerjanya sehingga menyebabkan banyak produk defek (defects),berlebihan (over production) dan tidak berkualiti atau berkualiti rendah dihasilkan yang sebenarnya merupakan ”time bomb” yang menunggu masa untuk meledak dan berpotensi menggugat survival syarikat.
Oleh kerana didalam konsep 4M (Man,Machine,Method,Material) hanya 1 M (Man ) –manusia sahaja yang mempunyai emosi dan mudah terpengaruh dengan gangguan maka adalah menjadi satu keperluan pengurusan atasan bagi sentiasa memenangi dan meningkatkan moral pekerja (employee morale).
Data atau Laporan Bertulis tidak menyertakan unsur emosi (emotions,feelings-sad ,happy,angry etc) jadi keputusan anda mungkin bukan keputusan yang baik didalam meningkat moral pekerja jika hanya bersandarkan kepada laporan bertulis itu sahaja.
INGAT-pencapaian organisasi yang cemerlang bergantung kepada gabungan usaha dan kerjasama setiap individu (energy +energy+....+ energy = synergy).
Adalah menjadi satu pendekatan yang baik bagi pihak pengurusan sentiasa mewujudkan kesan ”Howthorn Effect” dikalangan pekerja dan pengurusan dengan melaksanakan Koujou Kengaku/ Factory Tour.
Dengan melakukan pendekatan turun dan turut serta di bawah/pengeluaran,Pengurusan atasan dapat menyampaikan mesej dan polisi mereka dengan lebih tepat dan berkesan bagi memudahkan semua pihak untuk memahami dan bekerjasama bagi mencapai matlamat organisasi.
Jika pekerja sedia ada tidak berkemampuan mengubah cara kerja (5S dll) maka menjadi tanggungjawab pengurusan atasan untuk menyedarkan mereka.
Antara perkara yang perlu dilihat oleh Pengurusan Atasan adalah :-
1-Pastikan keadaan kilang atau bengkel teratur –LIHAT kebersihan dan suasana kerja.
2-Melihat layout atau susun atur kilang,bengkel dan mesin.
3-Perhatikan pergerakkan bahan atau produk dan keseimbangan proses (line balancing)
4-Cara bahan dan produk dikendalikan
5-Standard Operasi (Operation standard ,Operating Instruction,Limit Sample etc)
6-Penggunaan peralatan dan jig yang cekap,fungsi-fungsi mekanikal dan automasi (automation)
7-Penyelengaraan mesin dan pengukuran peralatan (equipment calibration )
8-Inventori di tempat pengeluaran (production line),bahan dan peralatan.
9-Sikap dan motivasi pekerja (employee morale )
10-Pengurusan bilik setor (storage/warehouse management)
11- Mengurangkan bilangan penggunaan kertas (slips and chits)
12-Job description dan waktu bekerja bagi kerja tidak langsung (indirect work)
13-Kawalan Pengeluaran (Production control)
14-Jaminan Kualiti (Quality assurance)
15-Pemantauan ke atas subkontraktor (subcontractor monitoring)
16-Penyelenggaraan bangunan,jalan dan lain-lain kemudahan.
Pengurusan atasan perlu sentiasa melakukan pemantauan dengan melihat sendiri keadaan pengeluaran bukan hanya menjadikan data atau laporan bertulis sebagai panduan utama kerana besar kemungkinan data sampingan telah dipinda atau masalahnya telah diperkecilkan untuk menutup ruang bagi penambahbaikan’
Visual Management dan Management by Wandering Arounds adalah antara kaedah yang biasa dilakukan bagi memantau proses pengeluaran.
Pengurusan atasan perlu memastikan pengurus di pengeluaran tidak terlalu menekan kuantiti terhadap pekerja-pekerjanya sehingga menyebabkan banyak produk defek (defects),berlebihan (over production) dan tidak berkualiti atau berkualiti rendah dihasilkan yang sebenarnya merupakan ”time bomb” yang menunggu masa untuk meledak dan berpotensi menggugat survival syarikat.
Oleh kerana didalam konsep 4M (Man,Machine,Method,Material) hanya 1 M (Man ) –manusia sahaja yang mempunyai emosi dan mudah terpengaruh dengan gangguan maka adalah menjadi satu keperluan pengurusan atasan bagi sentiasa memenangi dan meningkatkan moral pekerja (employee morale).
Data atau Laporan Bertulis tidak menyertakan unsur emosi (emotions,feelings-sad ,happy,angry etc) jadi keputusan anda mungkin bukan keputusan yang baik didalam meningkat moral pekerja jika hanya bersandarkan kepada laporan bertulis itu sahaja.
INGAT-pencapaian organisasi yang cemerlang bergantung kepada gabungan usaha dan kerjasama setiap individu (energy +energy+....+ energy = synergy).
Adalah menjadi satu pendekatan yang baik bagi pihak pengurusan sentiasa mewujudkan kesan ”Howthorn Effect” dikalangan pekerja dan pengurusan dengan melaksanakan Koujou Kengaku/ Factory Tour.
Dengan melakukan pendekatan turun dan turut serta di bawah/pengeluaran,Pengurusan atasan dapat menyampaikan mesej dan polisi mereka dengan lebih tepat dan berkesan bagi memudahkan semua pihak untuk memahami dan bekerjasama bagi mencapai matlamat organisasi.
Jika pekerja sedia ada tidak berkemampuan mengubah cara kerja (5S dll) maka menjadi tanggungjawab pengurusan atasan untuk menyedarkan mereka.
Thursday, October 22, 2009
Example from Manufacturing Sector
Annual Quality Cost -Tire manufacturer
1. Cost of quality failures -losses
a.Defective stock $3,276 0.37
b.Repairs to product 73,229 8.31
c.Collect scrap 2,288 0.26
d.Waste-scrap 187,428 21.26
e.Consumer adjustments 408,200 46.31
f.Downgrading products 22,838 2.59
g.Customer ill will Not counted
h.Customer policy adjustment Not counted
Total $697,259 79.10%
2. Cost of appraisal
a.Incoming inspection $23,655 2.68
b.Inspection 1 32,582 3.70
c.Inspection 2 25,200 2.86
d.Spot-check inspection 65,910 7.37
Total $147,347 16.61%
3.Cost of prevention
a.Local plant quality control engineering $7,848 0.89
b.Corporate quality control engineering 30,000 3.40
Total $37,848 4.29%
Grand total $882,454 100.00%
As a result of this study,management decided to increase the budget for prevention activities.Three engineers were assigned to identify and pursue specific quality improvement projects.
1. Cost of quality failures -losses
a.Defective stock $3,276 0.37
b.Repairs to product 73,229 8.31
c.Collect scrap 2,288 0.26
d.Waste-scrap 187,428 21.26
e.Consumer adjustments 408,200 46.31
f.Downgrading products 22,838 2.59
g.Customer ill will Not counted
h.Customer policy adjustment Not counted
Total $697,259 79.10%
2. Cost of appraisal
a.Incoming inspection $23,655 2.68
b.Inspection 1 32,582 3.70
c.Inspection 2 25,200 2.86
d.Spot-check inspection 65,910 7.37
Total $147,347 16.61%
3.Cost of prevention
a.Local plant quality control engineering $7,848 0.89
b.Corporate quality control engineering 30,000 3.40
Total $37,848 4.29%
Grand total $882,454 100.00%
As a result of this study,management decided to increase the budget for prevention activities.Three engineers were assigned to identify and pursue specific quality improvement projects.
Prevention Costs.
These are cost incurred to keep failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.
1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training
1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training
Prevention Costs.
These are cost incurred to keep failure and appraisal costs to a minimum.
1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training
1.Quality planning
2.New-product review
3.Process planning
4.Process control
5.Quality audits :Evaluating the execution of activities in the overall quality plan.
6.Supplier quality evaluation
7.Training
Appraisal Costs
These are the costs incurred to determine the degree of conformance to quality requirements.
1.Incoming inspection and test.
2.In-process inspection and test
3.Final inspection and test
4.Document review :Examination of paperwork to be sent to customer
5.Balancing:Examination of various accounts to assure internal consistency
6.Product quality audits
7.Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
8.Inspection and test materials and services : Materials and supplies in inspection and test work (e.g x-ray film) and services (e.g., electric power)
9.Evaluation of stocks :Testing products in field storage or in stock to evaluate degradation.
1.Incoming inspection and test.
2.In-process inspection and test
3.Final inspection and test
4.Document review :Examination of paperwork to be sent to customer
5.Balancing:Examination of various accounts to assure internal consistency
6.Product quality audits
7.Maintaining accuracy of test equipment
8.Inspection and test materials and services : Materials and supplies in inspection and test work (e.g x-ray film) and services (e.g., electric power)
9.Evaluation of stocks :Testing products in field storage or in stock to evaluate degradation.
External Failure Costs.
This are costs associated with deficiencies that are found after product is received by the customer.Also included are lost opportunities for sales revenue.
Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs
1. Warranty charges
2.Complaint adjustment
3.Returned material
4.Allowances: The costs of concessions made to customers due to conforming product that does not meet customer needs.
5.Penalties due to poor quality
6.Rework on support operations : Correcting errors on billing and other external processes.
7.Revenue losses in support operations : An example is the failure to collect on receivables from some customers.
Lost Opportunities for Sales Revenue
1.Customer defections : contracts that are cancelled due to quality.
2.New customers lost because of quality : Profit on potential customers lost because of poor quality.
3.New customers lost because of lack of capability to meet customer needs.
Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs
1. Warranty charges
2.Complaint adjustment
3.Returned material
4.Allowances: The costs of concessions made to customers due to conforming product that does not meet customer needs.
5.Penalties due to poor quality
6.Rework on support operations : Correcting errors on billing and other external processes.
7.Revenue losses in support operations : An example is the failure to collect on receivables from some customers.
Lost Opportunities for Sales Revenue
1.Customer defections : contracts that are cancelled due to quality.
2.New customers lost because of quality : Profit on potential customers lost because of poor quality.
3.New customers lost because of lack of capability to meet customer needs.
Internal Failure Costs.
These are costs of deficiencies discovered before delivery which are associated with the failure (nonconformities) to meet explicit requirements or implicit needs of the external or internal customers.Also included are avoidable process losses and inefficiencies that occur even when requirements and needs are met.These are costs that would disappear if no deficiencies existed.
Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs.
1. Scrap
2.Rework
3.Lost or missing information
4.Failure analysis
5.Scrap and rework due to nonconforming product from supplier
6.100 % sorting inspection
7.Reinspection,retest
8.Changing processes to correct deficiencies
9.Redesign of hardware to correct deficiencies
10.Redesign of software to correct deficiencies.
11.Scrapping of obsolete product
12.Scrap in support operations:Defective items in indirect operations.
13.Rework in internal support operations
14.Downgrading:The difference between the normal selling price and the reduced price due to quality reasons.
Cost of Inefficient Processes
1.Variability of product characteristics
2.Unplanned downtime of equipment
3.Inventory shrinkage
4.Variation of process characteristics from "best practice" :Losses due to cycle time and costs of processes as compared to best practices in providing the same output.
5.Non-value-added activities
Failure to Meet Customer Requirements and Needs.
1. Scrap
2.Rework
3.Lost or missing information
4.Failure analysis
5.Scrap and rework due to nonconforming product from supplier
6.100 % sorting inspection
7.Reinspection,retest
8.Changing processes to correct deficiencies
9.Redesign of hardware to correct deficiencies
10.Redesign of software to correct deficiencies.
11.Scrapping of obsolete product
12.Scrap in support operations:Defective items in indirect operations.
13.Rework in internal support operations
14.Downgrading:The difference between the normal selling price and the reduced price due to quality reasons.
Cost of Inefficient Processes
1.Variability of product characteristics
2.Unplanned downtime of equipment
3.Inventory shrinkage
4.Variation of process characteristics from "best practice" :Losses due to cycle time and costs of processes as compared to best practices in providing the same output.
5.Non-value-added activities
Alignment of Process to Customer Requirements.
In order to minimize customer losses,it is desirable to align the process (process center) with the customer requirement (specification target).
It is additionally beneficial to the customer if variation around the target value is continually reduced.
This practice is sometimes called aligning the "Voice of the Process" with the "Voice of the Customer".It should be noted that although no variation is assumed in the "Voice of the Customer" for this example,the "Voice of the Customer" (specification target) does vary in the real world and this further complicates achieving true customer satisfaction with a given process.
Finally,when an estimated translated loss is generated by considering the actual distribution of parts being produced by this process,in conjunction with the loss being generated by this process,it can be shown that,in this case,approximately only 45% of the total loss to the customer is being accounted for by the parts beyond specification,while the remaining loss is coming from parts within specification but not at the target.
This strongly suggests that the "Goal Post" mentality,or computing percentage of "Bad" parts (parts beyond specifications),in and of itself,does not provide a proper appreciation for understanding the effect the process is actually having on the customer.
It is additionally beneficial to the customer if variation around the target value is continually reduced.
This practice is sometimes called aligning the "Voice of the Process" with the "Voice of the Customer".It should be noted that although no variation is assumed in the "Voice of the Customer" for this example,the "Voice of the Customer" (specification target) does vary in the real world and this further complicates achieving true customer satisfaction with a given process.
Finally,when an estimated translated loss is generated by considering the actual distribution of parts being produced by this process,in conjunction with the loss being generated by this process,it can be shown that,in this case,approximately only 45% of the total loss to the customer is being accounted for by the parts beyond specification,while the remaining loss is coming from parts within specification but not at the target.
This strongly suggests that the "Goal Post" mentality,or computing percentage of "Bad" parts (parts beyond specifications),in and of itself,does not provide a proper appreciation for understanding the effect the process is actually having on the customer.
Local actions and action on the system
Simple statistical process control techniques can detect special causes of variation.Discovering a special cause of variation and taking proper action is usually the responsibility of someone who is directly connected with the operation.Although management must sometimes be involved to correct the condition,the resolution of special cause of variation usually requires Local Action .This is especially true during the early process improvement efforts.As one succeeds in taking the proper action on special causes,those that remain will often require management action,rather than local action.
These same simple statistical techniques can also indicate the extent of common causes of variation,but the causes themselves need more detailed analysis to isolate.
The correction of these common causes of variation is usually the responsibility of management.Sometimes people directly connected with the operation will be in a better position to identify them and pass them on to management for action.Overall,though,the resolution of common causes of variation usually requires action on the system.
Only a relatively small proportion of excessive process variation-industrial experience suggests about 15%-is correctable locally by people directly connected with the operation.The majority-the other 85%-is correctable only by management action on the system.
Confusion about the type of action to take is very costly to the organization,in terms of wasted effort,delayed resolution of trouble,and aggravated problems.It may be wrong,for example,to take local action (e.g., adjusting a machine)when management action on the system is required (e.g., selecting suppliers that provide consistent input materials).
These same simple statistical techniques can also indicate the extent of common causes of variation,but the causes themselves need more detailed analysis to isolate.
The correction of these common causes of variation is usually the responsibility of management.Sometimes people directly connected with the operation will be in a better position to identify them and pass them on to management for action.Overall,though,the resolution of common causes of variation usually requires action on the system.
Only a relatively small proportion of excessive process variation-industrial experience suggests about 15%-is correctable locally by people directly connected with the operation.The majority-the other 85%-is correctable only by management action on the system.
Confusion about the type of action to take is very costly to the organization,in terms of wasted effort,delayed resolution of trouble,and aggravated problems.It may be wrong,for example,to take local action (e.g., adjusting a machine)when management action on the system is required (e.g., selecting suppliers that provide consistent input materials).
Variation : Common and Special Causes
No two products or characteristics are exactly alike,because any process contains many sources of variability.The differences among products may be larger,or they may be immeasurably small,but they are always present.The diameter of a machined shaft,for instance,would be susceptible to potential variation from the machine (clearance, bearing wear),tool (strength, rate of wear),material(diameter,hardness),operator(part feed,accuracy of centering),maintenance (lubrication, replacement of worn parts),and environment (temperature,constancy of power supply).
Some sources of variation in the process cause short-term,piece-to-piece differences eg.,backlash and clearance within a machine and its fixturing, or the accuracy of a bookkeeper's work.
Other sources of variation tend to cause changes in the output only over a longer period of time,either gradually as with tool or machine wear,step-wise as with procedural changes,or irregularly,as with environmental changes such as power surges.Therefore,the time period and conditions over which measurements are made will affect the amount of the total variation that will be present.
The distribution can be characterized by
1-Location
2- Spread (span of values from smallest to largest)
3-Shape (the pattern of variation-whether it is symmetrical,skewed,etc.)
Common causes refer to the many sources of variation within a process that has a stable and repeatable distribution over time.This is called "in a state of statistical control".Common causes behave like a stable system of chance causes.If only common causes of variation are present and do not change,the output of a process is predictable.
Special causes (often called assignable causes) refer to any factors causing variation that are not always acting on the process.That is,when they occur,they make the (overall) process distribution change.Unless all the special causes of variation are identified and acted upon,they will continue to affect the process output in unpredictable ways.If special causes of variation are present,the process output is not stable over time.
Some sources of variation in the process cause short-term,piece-to-piece differences eg.,backlash and clearance within a machine and its fixturing, or the accuracy of a bookkeeper's work.
Other sources of variation tend to cause changes in the output only over a longer period of time,either gradually as with tool or machine wear,step-wise as with procedural changes,or irregularly,as with environmental changes such as power surges.Therefore,the time period and conditions over which measurements are made will affect the amount of the total variation that will be present.
The distribution can be characterized by
1-Location
2- Spread (span of values from smallest to largest)
3-Shape (the pattern of variation-whether it is symmetrical,skewed,etc.)
Common causes refer to the many sources of variation within a process that has a stable and repeatable distribution over time.This is called "in a state of statistical control".Common causes behave like a stable system of chance causes.If only common causes of variation are present and do not change,the output of a process is predictable.
Special causes (often called assignable causes) refer to any factors causing variation that are not always acting on the process.That is,when they occur,they make the (overall) process distribution change.Unless all the special causes of variation are identified and acted upon,they will continue to affect the process output in unpredictable ways.If special causes of variation are present,the process output is not stable over time.
Wednesday, October 21, 2009
Occurrence
Occurrence ( O ) : Occurrence is the likelihood that a specific cause/mechanism of failure will occur.The likelihood of occurrence ranking number has relative meaning rather than an absolute value.Preventing or controlling the causes/mechanisms of failure through a design or process change is the only way a reduction in the occurrence ranking can be effected.
Table 2. Suggested Process Failure ‘s Occurrence Evaluation Criteria
| Probability | Likely Failure Rates | Ranking |
| Very High : Persistent Failures | ≥ 100 per thousand pieces | 10 |
| 50 per thousand pieces | 9 | |
| High : Frequent Failures | 20 per thousand pieces | 8 |
| 10 per thousand pieces | 7 | |
| Moderate: Occasional Failures | 5 per thousand pieces | 6 |
| 2 per thousand pieces | 5 | |
| Low: Relatively Few Failures | 1 per thousand pieces | 4 |
| 0.5 per thousand pieces | 3 | |
| Remote:Failure is Unlikely | 0.1 per thousand pieces | 2 |
| ≤0.01 per thousand pieces | 1 |
Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
Risk Priority Number (RPN
Risk Priority Number (RPN): The risk priority number is the product of the severity (S), occurrence (O),and detection (D) rankings.
(S) x (O) x(D) =RPN
The value is between 1 and 1000 can be used to rank order the concerns in the process.
Engineering assessment for preventive/corrective action should be first directed at high severity, high RPN, and other items designated by the team.
The intent of any recommended action is to reduce rankings in the following order: severity, occurrence , and detection.
In general practice, when the severity is 9 or 10, special attention must be given to ensure that the risk is addressed through existing design actions/controls or process preventive/corrective action(s),regardless of the RPN. In all cases where the effect of an identified potential failure could be a hazard to manufacturing/assembly personnel, preventive/corrective actions should be taken to avoid the failure by eliminating or controlling the cause(s), or appropriate operator protection should b e specified.
After special attention has been given to severity rankings of 9 or 10,the team then addresses other failure, with the intent of reducing severity, then occurrence, and then detection.
Actions such as, but not limited to, the following should be considered:
1-To reduce the probability of occurrence, process and/or design revisions are required. An action-oriented study of the process using statistical methods could be implemented with an ongoing feedback of information to the appropriate operations for continuous improvement and defect prevention.
2-Only a design and/or process revision can bring about a reduction in the severity ranking.
3-The preferred method to accomplish a reduction in the detection ranking is the use of error/mistake proofing methods. Generally , improving detection controls is costly and ineffective for quality improvements. Emphasis must, however, be placed on preventing defects rather than detecting them. An example would be the use of statistical control and process improvement rather than random quality checks or associated inspection.
Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
(S) x (O) x(D) =RPN
The value is between 1 and 1000 can be used to rank order the concerns in the process.
Engineering assessment for preventive/corrective action should be first directed at high severity, high RPN, and other items designated by the team.
The intent of any recommended action is to reduce rankings in the following order: severity, occurrence , and detection.
In general practice, when the severity is 9 or 10, special attention must be given to ensure that the risk is addressed through existing design actions/controls or process preventive/corrective action(s),regardless of the RPN. In all cases where the effect of an identified potential failure could be a hazard to manufacturing/assembly personnel, preventive/corrective actions should be taken to avoid the failure by eliminating or controlling the cause(s), or appropriate operator protection should b e specified.
After special attention has been given to severity rankings of 9 or 10,the team then addresses other failure, with the intent of reducing severity, then occurrence, and then detection.
Actions such as, but not limited to, the following should be considered:
1-To reduce the probability of occurrence, process and/or design revisions are required. An action-oriented study of the process using statistical methods could be implemented with an ongoing feedback of information to the appropriate operations for continuous improvement and defect prevention.
2-Only a design and/or process revision can bring about a reduction in the severity ranking.
3-The preferred method to accomplish a reduction in the detection ranking is the use of error/mistake proofing methods. Generally , improving detection controls is costly and ineffective for quality improvements. Emphasis must, however, be placed on preventing defects rather than detecting them. An example would be the use of statistical control and process improvement rather than random quality checks or associated inspection.
Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
How to categorize Process Failure by Severity Ranking
Table1.Suggested Process Failure’s Severity Evaluation Criteria
| Effect | Criteria: Severity of Effect This ranking results when a potential failure results in a final customer and/or a manufacturing/assembly plant defect. The final customer should always be considered first. If both occur,use the higher of the two severities. (Customer Effect) | Criteria: Severity of Effect This ranking results when a potential failure results in a final customer and/or a manufacturing/assembly plant defect. The final customer should always be considered first. If both occur,use the higher of the two severities. (Manufacturing / Assembly Effect ) | Ranking |
| Hazardous without warning | Very high severity ranking when a potential failure affects safe product operation and/or involves noncompliance with government regulation without warning | Or may endanger operator (machine or assembly ) without warning | 10 |
| Hazardous with warnings | Very high severity ranking when a potential failure affects safe product operation and/or involves noncompliance with government regulation with warning | Or may endanger operator (machine or assembly) with warning | 9 |
| Very High | Product or item inoperable (loss of primary function) | Or 100% of product may have to be scrapped, or product / item repaired in repair department with a repair time greater than one hour. | 8 |
| High | Product or item operable but at a reduced level of performance. Customer very dissatisfied | Or product may have to be sorted and a portion (less than 100%) scrapped, or product/item repaired in repair department with a repair time between a half-hour and an hour | 7 |
| Moderate | Product or item operable but Comfort/Convenience item(s) inoperable. Customer dissatisfied. | Or a portion(less than100%) of the product may have to scrapped with no sorting,or product/item repaired in repair department with a repair time less than a half-hour. | 6 |
| Low | Product or item operable but Comfort/Convenience item(s) operable at a reduced level of performance. | Or 100% of product may have to be reworked, or product/item repaired off-line but does not go to repair department. | 5 |
| Very Low | Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by most customers (greater than 75%) | Or the product may have to be sorted, with no scrap, and a portion(less than 100%) reworked. | 4 |
| Minor | Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by 50% of customers. | Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product may have to be reworked, with no scrap, on-line but out-of-station | 3 |
| Very Minor | Fit and Finish/Squeak and Rattle item does not conform. Defect noticed by discriminating customers (less than 25%). | Or a portion (less than 100%) of the product may have to be reworked, with no scrap, on-line but in-station. | 2 |
| None | No discernible effect | Or slight inconvenience to operation or operator, or no effect. | 1 |
Note : It is not recommended to modify criteria for ranking values of 9 and 10.Failure with a rank of severity 1 should not be analyzed further.
Severity (S) : Severity is the rank associated with the most serious effect for a given failure. A reduction in severity ranking index can be effected through a design change to system,subsystem or component,or a redesign of the process.
Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
Detection
Detection (D) : Detection is the rank associated with the best detection control listed in the process control. In order to achieve a lower ranking, generally the planned process control has to be improved.
Assumed the failure has occurred and then assess the capabilities of all “Current Process Controls” to prevent shipment of the part having this failure or defect. Do not automatically presume that the detection ranking is low because the occurrence is low, but do assess the ability of the process controls to detect low frequency failure or prevent them from going further in the process.
Random quality checks are unlikely to detect the existence of an isolated defect and should not influence the detection ranking. Sampling done on statistical basis is a valid detection control.
Table 3. Suggested Process Failure’s Detection Evaluation Criteria
| Detection | Criteria | Inspection Types | Suggested Range of Detection Methods | Ranking | ||
| A | B | C | ||||
| Almost Impossible | Absolute certainty of non detection | | | X | Cannot detect or is not checked | 10 |
| Very Remote | Controls will probably not detect | | | X | Control is achieved with indirect or random checks only | 9 |
| Remote | Controls have poor chance of detection. | | | X | Control is achieved with visual inspection only. | 8 |
| Very Low | Controls have poor chance of detection. | | | X | Control is achieved with double visual inspection only. | 7 |
| Low | Controls may detect | | X | X | Control is achieved with charting methods, such as SPC. | 6 |
| Moderate | Controls may detect | | X | | Control is based on variable gauging after parts have left the station, or Go/No Go gauging performed on 100% of the parts after parts have left the station. | 5 |
| Moderately High | Controls have a good chance to detect | X | X | | Error detection in subsequent operations, OR gauging performed on setup and first-piece check (for set-up causes only) | 4 |
| High | Controls have a good chance to detect | X | X | | Error detection in-station, or error detection in subsequent operations by multiple layers of acceptance: supply, select, install, verify. Cannot accept discrepant part. | 3 |
| Very High | Controls almost certain to detect. | X | X | | Error detection in-station (automatic gauging with automatic stop feature).Cannot pass discrepant part. | 2 |
| Very High | Controls certain to detect. | X | | | Discrepant parts cannot be made because item has been error-proofed by process/product design. | 1 |
Inspection Types :
A . Error-proofed
B. Gauging
C. Manual Inspection
Articles from FMEA Third Edition DaimlerChrysler Corporation, Ford Motor Company, General Motors Corporation.
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