Motivation Concepts

Theory X and Theory Y
Theory X
Inherent dislike for work and will attempt to avoid it
Must be coerced, controlled or threatened with punishment
Will avoid responsibilities and seek formal direction
Place security above all factors and will display little ambition

Theory Y
View work as being as natural as rest or play
Will exercise self-direction and self-control if committed to objectives
Can learn to accept, even seek, responsibility
Can make innovative decisions on their own

Two-Factor Theory
Hygiene factors affectjob dissatisfaction
Quality of supervision
Pay
Company policies
Physical working conditions
Relations with others
Job security

Motivator factors affect job satisfaction
Promotional opportunities
Opportunities for personal growth
Recognition
Responsibility
Achievement


Herzberg’s Two-Factor Theory
Managers who seek to eliminate factors that can create job dissatisfaction may bring about peace but not necessarily motivation.
If a manager wants to motivate people on their jobs, he should emphasize factors associated with the work itself or to outcomes directly derived from it.

McClelland's Theory of Needs
Need for achievement (nAch)- drive to excel
Need for power (nPow) - the need to make others behave in a way they would not have behaved otherwise
Need for affiliation (nAff) - the desire for friendly and close interpersonal relationships
High achievers prefer jobs with personal responsibility, feedback, and intermediate degree of risk
High achievers are not necessarily good managers.
Low need for affiliation and high need for power closely related to managerial success
Employees can be trained to stimulate their achievement need.

Cognitive Evaluation Theory
Proposes that the introduction of extrinsic rewards for work that was previously intrinsically rewarding tends to decrease overall motivation
Verbal rewards increase intrinsic motivation, while tangible rewards undermine it

Goal-Setting Theory
Specific goals lead to increased performance.
Difficult goals, when accepted, result in higher output than easy goals.
Self-generated feedback is a more powerful motivator than externally generated feedback.
Influences on goal-performance relationship:
Commitment
Task characteristics
National culture

Management by Objectives (MBO)
Converts overall organizational objectives into specific objectives for work units and individuals
Common ingredients:
Goal specificity
Participation in decision making
Explicit time period
Performance feedback

Self-Efficacy Theory
Refers to an individual’s belief that they are capable of performing a task
Ways self-efficacy can be increased:
Enactive mastery – gain experience
Vicarious modeling – see someone else do the task
Verbal persuasion – someone convinces you that you have the skills
Arousal – get energized

Equity Theory
Employees weigh what they put into a job situation (input) against what they get from it (outcome).
Then they compare their input-outcome ratio with the input-outcome ratio of relevant others.

Theories are Often Culture-Bound
Most motivation theories were developed in the U.S. by Americans and about Americans
Not all cultures have the same characteristics as American culture
Many cultures desire interesting work and other factors

Implications for Managers
Look beyond need theories
Goal setting leads to higher productivity
Organizational justice has support
Expectancy theory’s power in explaining productivity increases